Sun Tzu's Art of War

 

Chapter 1: "Laying Plans" 

(始計 - Shǐ Jì)! It's the foundation upon which the entire work rests. Let's delve into its key ideas:

Sun Tzu immediately establishes that warfare is a matter of vital importance to the state – a matter of life and death, a road either to safety or to ruin. Therefore, it demands careful consideration.

He then introduces the five constant factors that should be taken into account when assessing a situation before engaging in battle. These are:

1. The Moral Law (道 - Dào): This refers to that which causes the people to be in complete accord with their ruler, so that they will follow him regardless of their lives, undismayed by any danger. Think of it as unity of purpose and strong leadership that inspires unwavering loyalty.   

2. Heaven (天 - Tiān): This encompasses all circumstantial elements like time of year, weather conditions (cold, heat), terrain (distances, danger, security), and the natural advantages or disadvantages these present. It's about understanding the environment and its impact.

3. Earth (地 - Dì): This refers to distances, great and small; danger and security; open ground and narrow passes; the chances of life and death. It's the lay of the land and its strategic implications.

4. The Commander (將 - Jiàng): This speaks to the general's qualities: wisdom, sincerity, benevolence, courage, and strictness. A capable leader is crucial for success.

5. Method and Discipline (法 - Fǎ): This concerns the organization of the army, the gradations of rank among the officers, the maintenance of roads by which supplies may reach the army, and the control of military expenditure. It's about efficient organization and logistics.   

Sun Tzu emphasizes the importance of comparing these factors between one's own side and the enemy's before engaging in conflict. By analyzing these aspects, one can determine which side is likely to win or lose. He poses questions like:

• Which of the two sovereigns is imbued with the Moral Law?
• Which of the two generals has the most ability?
• With whom lie the advantages derived from Heaven and Earth?   
• On which side is discipline most rigorously enforced?
• Which army is stronger?
• On which side are officers and men more highly trained?
• In which army is there the greater constancy both in reward and punishment?   

Based on the answers to these questions, one can predict the outcome of the battle.

A crucial point Sun Tzu makes is that all warfare is based on deception (兵者，詭道也 - Bīng zhě, guǐ dào yě). Therefore, when capable, feign incapacity; when active, inactivity; when near, make it appear that you are far away; when far away, make it appear that you are near.   

He further elaborates on this principle with specific examples:

• To entice the enemy to take the bait, feign disorder.
• If he is taking his ease, give him no rest.
• If his forces are united, separate them.
• Attack him where he is unprepared, appear where you are not expected.   

Sun Tzu concludes the chapter by stressing the importance of careful calculation and planning before any engagement. A battle is won or lost even before it is fought, based on the thoroughness of the initial assessment. He states that a general who wins a battle makes many calculations in his temple beforehand, while a general who loses makes but few calculations. It is by attention to this point that one can foresee victory or defeat.

In essence, Chapter 1 lays the groundwork for Sun Tzu's entire philosophy: prioritize careful planning, understand all the influencing factors, and always employ deception. It's a powerful introduction to the strategic thinking required for successful warfare, and its principles continue to resonate in various fields beyond military conflict.

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Chapter 2: Waging War (作戰 - Zuò Zhàn).

Having laid the groundwork for careful planning in the first chapter, Sun Tzu now delves into the practicalities and potential pitfalls of actually engaging in warfare. He immediately highlights the cost and the need for swift action.

Sun Tzu begins by stating that in operations of war, where there are in the field a thousand swift chariots, as many heavy chariots, and a hundred thousand mail-clad soldiers, with provisions enough to carry them a thousand li, the expenditure daily will amount to a thousand ounces of silver. Such is the cost of maintaining a large army.   

He emphasizes that victory should be the primary objective, and prolonged campaigns are to be avoided at all costs. A protracted war drains the resources of the state, dulls the soldiers' spirits, and creates opportunities for other powers to exploit the situation. Sun Tzu warns that if the army is engaged in prolonged campaigns and the victory is long in coming, the men's weapons will grow dull, their ardor will be damped, their strength exhausted, and their treasure spent.

He further elaborates on the dangers of a drawn-out conflict:

• When weapons are dulled, ardor damped, strength exhausted, and treasure spent, other chieftains will spring up and take advantage of your extremity.
• Then no man, however wise, will be able to avert the consequences that must ensue.   

Sun Tzu stresses that there has never been a protracted war from which a country has benefited. He argues that only those who are thoroughly acquainted with the evils of war can thoroughly understand the profitable way of carrying it on.

A key principle introduced in this chapter is the importance of living off the enemy. He states that to subsist an army close to the enemy is to impoverish him. If you take food from the enemy, you will have food enough.

Sun Tzu also touches upon the importance of speed and decisive action. He advises that in war, then, let your great object be victory, not lengthy campaigns.

He illustrates this with the idea that it is only one who knows the disastrous nature of a long war that can appreciate the supreme importance of rapidity in bringing it to a close.

The chapter concludes by reiterating the high cost of war in terms of resources and manpower, and the necessity of achieving swift victory to minimize these losses. He emphasizes that to kill the enemy, our men must be roused to anger; that there may be advantage from defeating the enemy, they must have their rewards.   

In summary, Chapter 2 shifts the focus from planning to execution, emphasizing the urgency of achieving swift victory, the economic burden of prolonged conflict, and the strategic advantage of living off the enemy's resources. It underscores the idea that war, while sometimes necessary, is inherently costly and should be concluded as quickly as possible.

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Chapter 3: Attack by Stratagem (謀攻 - Móu Gōng).

In this chapter, Sun Tzu emphasizes the superiority of intelligence, planning, and strategic maneuvering over brute force in warfare. The ideal outcome, he argues, is to subdue the enemy without ever having to engage in a full-scale battle.

Sun Tzu begins by stating that in the practical art of war, the best thing of all is to take the enemy's country whole and intact; to shatter and destroy it is not so good. Thus, to subdue the enemy's army without fighting is the acme of skill.   

He outlines a hierarchy of strategic options, with the most desirable at the top:

1. To subdue the enemy's army without fighting. This is the highest form of strategy.
2. To attack cities. This is the next best option.
3. To besiege walled cities. This is presented as a last resort, to be undertaken only when absolutely necessary. Sun Tzu warns that to prepare mantlets, movable shelters, and various implements of siege, will take three whole months; and to pile up mounds over against the walls will take three months more. If the general is unable to control his impatience, and plunges his men like swarming ants up the wall, the result will be a slaughter.

Sun Tzu then elaborates on the principles of attacking by stratagem, emphasizing the importance of wisdom and careful planning:

• The skillful leader subdues the enemy's troops without any fighting; he captures their cities without laying siege to them; he overthrows their kingdom without lengthy operations in the field.   

He highlights the importance of preserving one's own strength while exploiting the enemy's weaknesses:

• With his forces intact he will dispute the mastery of the Empire, and thus, without losing a single man, his triumph will be complete. This is the method of armed attack.

Sun Tzu then lays out five essentials for victory:

1. He will win who knows when to fight and when not to fight.
2. He will win who knows how to handle both superior and inferior forces.
3. He will win whose army is animated by the same spirit throughout all its ranks.   
4. He will win who, prepared himself, waits to take the enemy unprepared.
5. He will win who has military capacity and is not interfered with by the sovereign.

The final point regarding the sovereign is particularly significant, as it touches upon the importance of trust and autonomy for the military commander.   

Sun Tzu further emphasizes the significance of knowing the enemy and knowing yourself:

• If you know the enemy and know yourself, you need not fear the result of a hundred battles. If you know yourself but not the enemy, for every victory gained you will also suffer a defeat. If you know neither the enemy nor yourself, you will succumb in every battle.   

In essence, Chapter 3 advocates for a strategic approach to warfare that prioritizes intelligence, planning, and the avoidance of direct conflict whenever possible. The goal is to achieve victory with minimal loss and maximum efficiency by exploiting the enemy's weaknesses and carefully calculating one's own actions.

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Chapter 4: Tactical Dispositions (軍形 - Jūn Xíng).

In this chapter, Sun Tzu shifts the focus from grand strategy and planning to the importance of defensive strength and the creation of advantageous tactical positions. He emphasizes that a skilled commander first ensures their own invincibility and then waits for an opportunity to exploit the enemy's vulnerabilities.

Sun Tzu begins by stating that the good fighter of old first puts himself beyond the possibility of defeat, and then waits for an opportunity of defeating the enemy.

He draws a clear distinction between defense and offense:

• Security against defeat implies defensive tactics; ability to defeat the enemy means taking the offensive.
• Standing on the defensive indicates insufficient strength; attacking, a superabundance of strength.   

Sun Tzu stresses the importance of self-preservation and meticulous preparation:

• The general who is skilled in defense hides in the most secret recesses of the earth; he who is skilled in attack flashes forth from the topmost heights of heaven. Thus on the one hand we have ability to protect ourselves; on the other, a victory that is complete.   

He further elaborates on the nature of defensive and offensive strategies:

• To see victory only when it is within the ken of the common herd is not the acme of excellence. Neither is it the acme of excellence if you fight and conquer and the whole Empire says, "Well done!" to lift an autumn hair is no sign of great strength; to see the sun and moon is no sign of sharp sight; to hear the noise of thunder is no sign of a quick ear.   

Sun Tzu uses analogies to illustrate the concept of strategic advantage:

• What the ancients called a clever fighter is one who not only wins, but excels in winning with ease. Hence his victories bring him neither reputation for wisdom nor credit for courage. He wins his battles by making no mistakes. Making no mistakes is what establishes the certainty of victory, for it means conquering an enemy that is already defeated.   

He emphasizes that a strategically sound position is crucial for victory:

• That which enables the good fighter to strike and conquer is the fact that his calculations have been made beforehand. Victory is the sequel to a strategic disposition, just as defeat is the result of forethought.

Sun Tzu highlights the importance of measuring and assessing the enemy:

• In respect of military method, we have, firstly, Measurement; secondly, Estimation of quantity; thirdly, Calculation; fourthly, Comparison; fifthly, Chances of victory. Earth owes its extent to measurement; quantity owes its estimate to measurement; calculation owes its existence to quantity; comparison owes its basis to calculation; and victory owes its being to comparison.   

He concludes the chapter by emphasizing the importance of a well-ordered and disciplined army that is capable of adapting to the situation:

• A victorious army opposed to a routed one is as a pound's weight placed in the scale against a single grain. The onrush of a conquering force is like the bursting of pent-up waters into a chasm a thousand fathoms deep.   

In summary, Chapter 4 underscores the significance of establishing a strong defensive posture, meticulously analyzing the enemy, and creating tactical advantages through careful planning and disposition of forces. The aim is to secure oneself against defeat and then wait for the opportune moment to strike a weakened enemy.

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Chapter 5: Energy (兵勢 - Bīng Shì).

In this chapter, Sun Tzu delves into the concept of "Shi" (勢), often translated as energy, momentum, force, or strategic advantage. It's about creating and exploiting dynamic power in warfare, akin to a released torrent or a soaring hawk.

Sun Tzu begins by comparing the control of a large force to the command of just a few men, emphasizing the importance of organization and signaling:

• The control of a large force is the same principle as the control of a few men: it is merely a question of dividing up their numbers. Fighting with a large army under your command is nowise different from fighting with a small one: it is merely a question of instituting signs and signals.   

He highlights the use of direct and indirect methods in battle:

• In battle, there are no more than two methods of direct attack—the regular and the surprising; yet these two in combination give rise to an endless series of maneuvers. The direct and the surprising—these are the two forces to be combined in battle.

Sun Tzu uses vivid analogies to illustrate the power of Shi:

• The onrush of the onrushing is at first terrible, but afterwards becomes calm. Such is the Shi of men who are good at fighting. The clever combatant looks at the effect of combined energy, and does not require too much from individuals. Hence his ability to pick out the right men and utilize combined energy.   

He compares the potential energy of a well-led army to a rolling log or a released flood:

• The impact of his combined forces is like that of a round stone rolled down a mountain thousands of feet in height. Such is Shi.

Sun Tzu elaborates on the art of creating and managing this strategic momentum:

• Energy may be likened to the bending of a crossbow; decision, to the release of a trigger. Amid the turmoil and tumult of battle, there may be seeming disorder and yet real order; amid the seeming confusion, there may be real discipline. To be able to disguise order amidst disorder, courage amidst cowardice, is merely a matter of tactical disposition. To keep one's whole force concentrated and to march straight at the enemy's teeth—this is the artifice of an inferior leader. The clever combatant imposes his will on the enemy, but does not allow the enemy's will to be imposed on him.

He emphasizes the importance of exploiting weaknesses and striking at vulnerable points:

• Throw eggs against hard stones—this is an example of one form of Shi. To advance unopposed through the enemy's empty spaces, pierce deeply, seize something important, and return—this is the Shi of those who cannot be withstood.

Sun Tzu concludes the chapter by reiterating the significance of well-managed energy and strategic timing:

• That wherein the art of using one's force consists is that, when confronting a vast host drawn up in battle array, one must be audacious in showing oneself, and yet wary in keeping hidden one's plans.

In essence, Chapter 5 delves into the dynamic aspect of warfare, emphasizing the creation and manipulation of strategic momentum (Shi). It highlights the importance of organization, surprise, and exploiting the enemy's weaknesses to achieve decisive advantage. The chapter underscores the idea that a well-coordinated force, unleashed at the opportune moment, possesses an almost irresistible power.

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Chapter 6: Weak Points and Strong (虛實 - Xū Shí).

In this crucial chapter, Sun Tzu elaborates on the art of identifying and exploiting the enemy's weaknesses while concealing one's own strengths. The core principle revolves around creating a situation where you are strong where the enemy is weak.

Sun Tzu begins by stating that whoever is first in the field and awaits the coming of the enemy, will be fresh for the fight; whoever is second in the field and has to hasten to battle will be weary.   

He emphasizes the importance of inducing the enemy to reveal their weaknesses:

• Therefore the clever combatant imposes his will on the enemy, but does not allow the enemy's will to be imposed on him.

Sun Tzu explains how to achieve this strategic dominance:   

• By holding out advantages to him, he can cause the enemy to approach of his own accord; or, by inflicting damage, he can make it impossible for the enemy to draw near.   

He delves into the art of maneuvering the enemy:

• If the enemy is taking his ease, give him no rest. If his forces are united, separate them. Attack him where he is unprepared, appear where you are not expected.  

A central theme of this chapter is the ability to make the enemy commit to a certain course of action while you remain flexible and can strike where they are vulnerable:

• These military dispositions, leading to victory, are not divulged beforehand. Now the general who wins a battle makes many calculations in his temple ere the battle is fought. The general who loses a battle makes but few calculations beforehand. Thus do many calculations lead to victory, and few calculations to defeat: how much more no calculation at all! It is by attention to this point that I can foresee who is likely to win or lose.   

Sun Tzu emphasizes the importance of creating the illusion of weakness to entice the enemy:

• To move swifty like the wind, silently and closely formed like the forest, to plunder and pillage like fire, to be immovable like a mountain, to conceal your designs like darkness, and like a thunderbolt to fall upon your adversaries.

He further elaborates on the concept of adjusting one's tactics based on the enemy's dispositions:

• When the enemy is mobile, seek to know the places where he must rush; when by throwing open your defenses you offer him a bait, seek to know the fatal spot.

Sun Tzu highlights the strategic advantage of attacking undefended points and avoiding well-defended ones:

• An army may be likened to water, for just as flowing water avoids high places and hastens to the lowlands, so in war the victorious army avoids what is strong and strikes at what is weak. Water shapes its course according to the nature of the ground over which it flows; the soldier works out his victory in relation to the foe whom he is facing. Therefore just as water retains no constant shape, so in warfare there are no constant conditions. He who can modify his tactics in relation to his opponent and thereby succeed in winning, may be called a heaven-born captain; the five elements [water, fire, wood, metal, earth] are not always equally predominant; the four seasons make way for each other in turn; there are short days and long; the moon has its periods of waning and waxing.  

In essence, Chapter 6 focuses on the dynamic interplay between weakness and strength in warfare. The skilled commander manipulates the enemy to expose their vulnerabilities and concentrates their own forces to strike decisively at these unguarded points. The ability to remain fluid and adapt to the enemy's movements is presented as crucial for achieving victory.

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Chapter 7: Maneuvering (軍爭 - Jūn Zhēng).

In this chapter, Sun Tzu discusses the challenges and complexities of maneuvering large armies and the critical importance of speed, surprise, and avoiding disadvantageous positions. The central theme revolves around the idea that in the competition for strategic advantage, the direct route may not always be the most effective.

Sun Tzu begins by stating that in war, the general receives his commands from the sovereign, assembles his army and concentrates his forces.

He highlights the difficulty of contending for advantageous positions:

• When contending for an advantageous position, if the movement is slow, one will fall behind the others. If the army is moved rapidly and the soldiers are made to march great distances without halting, they will only a tenth of their number will arrive. If marched fifty li in order to outmaneuver the enemy, the leader of the first detachment will fall into his hands, and you will lose about half your force. If marched thirty li with the same object, two-thirds of your army will arrive.

Sun Tzu emphasizes the dangers of marching without a clear objective or proper reconnaissance:

• An army may be likened to water, for just as flowing water avoids high places and hastens to the lowlands, so in war the victorious army avoids what is strong and strikes at what is weak. Water shapes its course according to the nature of the ground over which it flows; the soldier works out his victory in relation to the foe whom he is facing. Therefore just as water retains no constant shape, so in warfare there are no constant conditions. He who can modify his tactics in relation to his opponent and thereby succeed in winning, may be called a heaven-born captain; the five elements [water, fire, wood, metal, earth] are not always equally predominant; the four seasons make way for each other in turn; there are short days and long; the moon has its periods of waning and waxing.   

He outlines the importance of seizing key strategic points before the enemy:

• The difficulty of tactical maneuvering consists in turning the devious into the direct, and misfortune into gain. Thus, to take a long and circuitous route, after enticing the enemy out of the way, and though starting after him, to contrive to reach the goal before him, shows knowledge of the artifice of deviation.   

Sun Tzu warns against attacking well-defended positions and emphasizes the importance of striking at vulnerable points:

• To fight with advantage, one's forces must be concentrated, and the enemy's must be divided.

He discusses the art of creating opportunities for the enemy to expose themselves:

• Whether to set up camps or to hasten on one's march should be determined by circumstances. Let your rapidity be that of the wind, your deliberation that of the forest. In raiding and plundering be like fire, be immovable like a mountain. Let your plans be dark and impenetrable as night, and when you move, fall like a thunderbolt.

Sun Tzu also touches upon the importance of understanding the terrain and the enemy's intentions:

• When you plunder a countryside, let your spoil be divided amongst your men; when you capture a town, let the spoil be divided. Do not move unless you see advantage; do not use your troops unless there is something to be gained; do not fight unless the position is critical. No ruler should put troops into the field merely to gratify his own anger; no general should move an army simply gratify his own spleen. Move not unless you see advantage; act not unless you are sure to win; if it is not advantageous, do not move.

He concludes the chapter by emphasizing the dangers of hesitation and the importance of decisive action when an opportunity arises:

• To be first in the field and await the coming of the enemy is ease; to be second in the field and hasten to battle is toil. Therefore the clever combatant imposes his will on the enemy, but does not allow the enemy's will to be imposed on him. By holding out advantages to him, he can cause the enemy to approach of his own accord; or, by inflicting damage, he can make it impossible for the enemy to draw near.   

In essence, Chapter 7 highlights the complexities of military maneuvering, emphasizing the need for speed, surprise, and the strategic exploitation of terrain and enemy weaknesses. It warns against rash actions and underscores the importance of careful consideration and decisive action when a strategic advantage presents itself.   

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Chapter 8: Variation in Tactics (九變 - Jiǔ Biàn).

In this chapter, Sun Tzu emphasizes the importance of flexibility, adaptability, and responding intelligently to changing circumstances. The title "Nine Variations" suggests the need for a commander to be versatile and not adhere rigidly to pre-conceived plans.

Sun Tzu begins by stating that in war, the general receives his commands from the sovereign, assembles his army and concentrates his forces.

He then presents a series of situations and corresponding advice for the general:

• Do not encamp in low-lying ground. This likely refers to avoiding areas prone to flooding or enemy attack.
• In intersecting highways, join hands with your allies. This highlights the importance of cooperation and coordination with friendly forces.
• Do not halt in lonely isolated positions. This emphasizes the need for security and avoiding being cut off.
• In hemmed-in situations, you must resort to stratagem. This suggests using cunning and deception when surrounded.
• In desperate positions, you must fight. This underscores the necessity of courage and determination when facing annihilation.

Sun Tzu stresses that a wise general understands these "nine variations" and knows how to act accordingly:

• There are roads which must not be followed, armies which must not be attacked, towns which must not be besieged, positions which must not be contested, commands of the sovereign which must not be obeyed.   

This last point regarding the sovereign is significant. It implies that a capable general must exercise independent judgment and prioritize the overall strategic situation, even if it means deviating from the ruler's orders.

Sun Tzu emphasizes the importance of adapting to the enemy's movements:

• The general who thoroughly understands the advantages that go with variation of tactics knows how to handle his troops. The general who does not understand these, may be well acquainted with the configuration of the country, yet he will not be able to turn his knowledge to practical account. So the student of war who is unversed in the art of variation has his five advantages even though he may be familiar with the ground. Hence in the general's plans, considerations of advantage and disadvantage will be blended together.   

He advises on the importance of anticipating and preparing for potential setbacks:

• If our expectation of advantage be tempered in this way, we may succeed in accomplishing the essential part of our schemes. If, on the other hand, in the midst of difficulties we are always ready to seize an advantage, we may extricate ourselves from misfortune.   

Sun Tzu highlights the strategic value of deception and creating diversions:

• Beguile your enemy with delusive appearances, and while he is striving to grasp at these, rush in with your division.

He further elaborates on the importance of swiftness and exploiting opportunities:

• Rapidity is the essence of war: take advantage of the enemy's unpreparedness, make your way by unexpected routes, and attack unguarded spots.   

Sun Tzu concludes the chapter by emphasizing the need for prudence and careful consideration before acting:

• The following are the principles to be observed by an invading force: The further you penetrate into a hostile country, the greater will be the solidarity of your troops, and thus the more stubbornly will they fight. Make forays in fertile country in order to supply your army with food. Carefully study the well-being of your men, and do not overtax them. Concentrate your energy and hoard your strength. Keep your army continually on the move, and devise unfathomable plans. Throw your soldiers into positions whence there is no escape, and they will prefer death to flight. If they will face death, there is nothing they may not achieve. Officers and men alike, being thrown into a desperate position, will display their courage to the utmost.  

In essence, Chapter 8 stresses the critical importance of adaptability and flexibility in warfare. A successful commander must be able to deviate from plans, respond intelligently to changing circumstances, and exploit opportunities as they arise. The chapter underscores the idea that rigid adherence to fixed strategies can lead to defeat.

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Chapter 9: The Army on the March (行軍 - Xíng Jūn).

In this chapter, Sun Tzu focuses on the proper conduct and observation of an army on the move, emphasizing the importance of understanding the terrain and the enemy's intentions through careful observation and interpretation of signs.

Sun Tzu begins by detailing various ground conditions an army might encounter and the appropriate responses:

• When crossing mountains, keep to the valleys. Camp in high places, facing the sunny side. Do not ascend heights in order to fight. So much for mountain warfare.
• After crossing a river, you should get far away from it. When an invading force crosses a river in its onward march, do not advance to meet it in mid-stream. It will be best to let half the army get across, and then deliver your attack. If you are anxious to fight, you should not go to meet the invader near a river which he has to cross. Moor your craft higher up than the enemy, and facing the sun. Do not move up-stream to meet the enemy. So much for river warfare.  
• When passing through defiles, occupy the exits, and allow the enemy to pass through rather than obstruct him. If a force is quartered in a defile, and you are blocking the entrance of the defile, do not go after him if there is still room for him to maneuver.
• In open country, take up an easily defensible position, and with your right and rear guarded, and your left wing foremost. So much for campaigning in open country.
• These are the four useful branches of military knowledge which enabled the Yellow Emperor to vanquish four several sovereigns.  

Sun Tzu then emphasizes the importance of observing signs and interpreting the enemy's movements:

• All armies prefer high ground to low and sunny spots to dark ones. If you are careful of your men, and camp on hard ground, the army will be free from disease of every kind, and this will spell victory. When you come to a hill or a bank, occupy the sunny side, with the slope at your back. Thus you will have the advantage of the ground, and act with all the strength of your soldiers.   

He provides a detailed list of signs that indicate the enemy's intentions:

• If trees move, the enemy is advancing. If there are many disturbances in the grass, the enemy is lying in ambush. If the birds take flight, the enemy is scattering. If the startled beasts bound forward, he is suddenly attacking. When there is dust rising in a high column, it is the sign of chariots coming. When the dust is low but spread over a wide area, it betokens the approach of infantry. When it branches out in different directions, it shows that detachments have been sent to collect firewood. A few clouds of dust moving to and fro signify that the army is encamping. Humble words and increased preparations are signs that the enemy is about to advance. Violent language and driving forward as if to attack are signs that he will retreat. When the light chariots come out first and take up a position on the wings, it is a sign that the enemy is arraying his forces for battle. Peace proposals unaccompanied by a sworn covenant indicate a plot. When there is much running about and the soldiers fall into rank, it means that the critical moment has arrived. When some are seen advancing and some retreating, it is a lure. When the soldiers are leaning on their spears, it indicates that they are faint from want of food. If those who are sent out to draw water begin by drinking themselves, the army is suffering from thirst. If the enemy sees an advantage to be gained and makes no effort to secure it, it is because he is fatigued. If birds gather on any spot, it is unoccupied. Clamor by night betokens nervousness. If there is disturbance in the camp, the general's authority is weak. If the banners and flags are shifted about, sedition is afoot. If the officers are angry, it means that the men are weary. An army on the point of winning is filled with ardor; an army on the point of being defeated is sluggish and inclined to disobedience.   

Sun Tzu also warns about the dangers of unnecessary movement and the importance of discipline:

• When birds rise in their flight, it is a sign that the enemy is lying in ambush below. When startled beasts leap out of the thickets, it is a sign that the enemy is coming unexpectedly. When there is dust rising in a high column, it is the sign of chariots coming. When the dust is low but spread over a wide area, it betokens the approach of infantry. When it branches out in different directions, it shows that detachments have been sent to collect firewood. A few clouds of dust moving to and fro signify that the army is encamping.   

He concludes by emphasizing the need for treating soldiers well to ensure their loyalty and effectiveness:

• When envoys are sent with compliments in their mouths, it is a sign that the enemy wishes for a truce. If the enemy's troops march up angrily and remain facing ours for a long time without either joining battle or taking themselves off again, the situation is one that demands great vigilance and circumspection. In war, numbers alone afford no advantage. Do not advance relying solely on military power. An unopposed army, flushed with victory, is prone to inglorious retreat. To move a camp without strong reason is perilous.   

In essence, Chapter 9 provides a detailed guide on how to manage an army on the move, emphasizing the crucial role of terrain, observation, and the interpretation of subtle signs to understand the enemy's intentions and avoid dangerous situations. It underscores the importance of maintaining discipline and ensuring the well-being of the troops.

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Chapter 10: Terrain (地形 - Dì Xíng).

In this chapter, Sun Tzu delves deeper into the importance of understanding different types of terrain and how to position oneself and one's army to gain a strategic advantage in each. He emphasizes adapting tactics to the specific environment.

Sun Tzu begins by categorizing terrain into six different types:

1. Accessible ground (通形 - Tōng Xíng): Ground which can be freely traversed by both sides. In such terrain, occupy elevated and sunny spots, and maintain your lines of supply.
2. Entangling ground (掛形 - Guà Xíng): Ground which can be entered easily but is difficult to leave. In such terrain, if the enemy is unprepared, you may sally forth and defeat him. But if the enemy is prepared and you sally forth, you will be defeated and retreat will be difficult.
3. Temporizing ground (支形 - Zhī Xíng): Ground which is equally disadvantageous for either side to occupy. In such terrain, even though the enemy should offer us an attractive bait, it will be advisable not to stir forth, but rather to fall back, thus enticing the enemy in his turn; then when part of his army has come out, we may deliver our attack with advantage.
4. Narrow passes (隘形 - Ài Xíng): Ground which is confined and can be obstructed. In such terrain, be sure to occupy strategic choke points and await the enemy. If the enemy has occupied it before you, do not follow him if the pass is fully garrisoned, but only if it is weakly held.  
5. Precipitous heights (險形 - Xiǎn Xíng): Ground which is steep and difficult to ascend. In such terrain, if you are beforehand with your adversary, you should occupy the raised and sunny spots, and there await his coming. If the enemy has occupied them before you, do not follow him upwards, but retreat and try to entice him away.
6. Positions at a great distance from the enemy (遠形 - Yuǎn Xíng): Ground where the distance is great, and an attack would be time-consuming. In such terrain, if the enemy initiates battle, it will be disadvantageous to engage.

Sun Tzu stresses that a commander who understands these six types of terrain will be victorious, while one who does not will suffer defeat.

He further elaborates on the dangers that can arise from ignoring the nature of the terrain:

• Ruin (敗走 - Bài Zǒu): Flight, resulting from not estimating the enemy's strength, from headlong impetuosity, from failure to reserve a privileged body of troops, from the breakdown of order, from being cut off by the enemy, from failure to rescue when danger threatens.

Sun Tzu then discusses six calamities that can befall an army, attributing them to the general's failures:

1. Flight (走 - Zǒu): When the estimates of the enemy's strength are incorrect, leading to an underestimation of the opponent.
2. Insubordination (弛 - Chí): When there is a lack of discipline and the troops are not properly trained or led.
3. Collapse (陷 - Xiàn): When the army is overwhelmed by a stronger enemy without proper preparation or strategic positioning.
4. Ruin (崩 - Bēng): When the army is routed due to poor organization and lack of reserves.
5. Disorder (亂 - Luàn): When the army is thrown into confusion due to poor communication and leadership.
6. Rout (北 - Běi): When the army is decisively defeated and flees in disarray.

Sun Tzu emphasizes that these calamities are not due to the terrain itself, but rather to the faults of the general.

He concludes the chapter by highlighting the importance of assessing the enemy and the terrain before engaging in battle:

• These are the six calamitous defeats, which must be carefully studied by the general who has attained a responsible post. The natural formation of the country is the soldier's best ally; but a power of estimating the adversary, of controlling the forces of victory, and of shrewdly calculating difficulties, dangers and distances, constitutes the test of a great general. He who knows these things, and in fighting puts his knowledge into practice, will win his battles. He who knows them not, nor practices them, will surely be defeated. If fighting is sure to result in victory, then you must fight, even though the ruler forbid it; if fighting will not result in victory, then you must not fight, even at the ruler's bidding. The general who advances without coveting fame and retreats without fearing disgrace, whose only thought is to protect his country and do good service for his sovereign, is the jewel of the kingdom.   

In essence, Chapter 10 underscores the critical role of terrain in warfare. A skilled commander must possess a thorough understanding of different ground conditions and adapt their tactics accordingly. The chapter also highlights the dangers of neglecting these factors and attributes military disasters to the failings of the general, not the terrain itself.

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Chapter 11: The Nine Varieties of Ground (九地 - Jiǔ Dì). This is indeed a more extensive chapter where Sun Tzu categorizes battlegrounds into nine distinct types, each demanding a specific approach and mindset.

Sun Tzu begins by outlining these nine types of ground:

1. Dispersive ground (散地 - Sǎn Dì): When a soldier is fighting in his own territory. In this situation, fight not. The objective is to keep the army together and focused on defense of their home territory.
2. Facile ground (輕地 - Qīng Dì): When you have penetrated into hostile territory to a shallow distance. On facile ground, halt not. The key is to advance swiftly and not linger, avoiding being cut off.
3. Contentious ground (爭地 - Zhēng Dì): Ground which, if occupied first by either side, confers great advantage. On contentious ground, attack not. The strategy here is to seize the advantageous position before the enemy does.
4. Open ground (交地 - Jiāo Dì): Ground on which each side has liberty of movement. On open ground, do not try to block the enemy's way. The focus should be on maneuvering and anticipating the enemy's moves.
5. Ground of intersecting highways (衢地 - Qú Dì): Ground which forms the key to three contiguous states, so that whoever occupies it first has most of the Empire at his command. On ground of intersecting highways, form alliances with your neighbors. The strategic importance necessitates securing diplomatic ties.
6. Serious ground (重地 - Zhòng Dì): When you have penetrated deep into hostile territory, leaving a number of fortified cities in your rear. On serious ground, gather in plunder. Supplying the army becomes paramount.
7. Difficult ground (圮地 - Pǐ Dì): Wooded mountains, precipitous slopes, are such as can only be traversed by narrow passes, and where even a small hostile force would be able to crush your detachments. On difficult ground, keep steadily on the march. Avoid getting bogged down in defensible terrain.
8. Hemmed-in ground (圍地 - Wéi Dì): Ground which is narrow at the entrance, but spacious within. On hemmed-in ground, resort to stratagem. Deception and unconventional tactics are necessary to escape or gain advantage.
9. Desperate ground (死地 - Sǐ Dì): Ground on which you can only be saved from destruction by fighting without delay. On desperate ground, fight. When there is no way out, a determined fight is the only option.

Sun Tzu emphasizes that a thorough understanding of these nine types of ground is essential for a commander:

• The general who thoroughly understands the advantages of these nine varieties of ground knows how to handle his troops. The general who does not understand these, may be well acquainted with the configuration of the country, yet he will not be able to turn his knowledge to practical account. When your army is crossing mountains, confine your movements to the valleys.   

He then elaborates on the principles of conducting warfare on each type of ground, often reiterating or expanding on points made in earlier chapters but now specifically tied to the terrain:

• On dispersive ground, I would not fight. On facile ground, I would not halt. On contentious ground, I would not attack. On open ground, I would not try to block the enemy's way. On ground of intersecting highways, I would form alliances with my neighbors. On serious ground, I would gather in plunder. On difficult ground, I would keep steadily on the march. On hemmed-in ground, I would resort to stratagem. On desperate ground, I would fight.

Sun Tzu also discusses the psychological impact of being on different types of ground on the soldiers:

• The difficulty of tactical maneuvering consists in turning the devious into the direct, and misfortune into gain. Thus, to take a long and circuitous route, after enticing the enemy out of the way, and though starting after him, to contrive to reach the goal before him, shows knowledge of the artifice of deviation. Maneuvering with an army is advantageous; with an undisciplined multitude, most dangerous. If you set a fully equipped army in motion in order to snatch an advantage, the chances are that you will be too late. On the other hand, to detach a flying column for the purpose involves the sacrifice of its baggage and stores.   

He stresses the importance of unity and cooperation within the army, especially when in hostile territory:

• Thus it is that with armed forces the great thing is constancy; by constancy good order can be maintained. To march a host of hungry men across a great distance, without feeding them, is to court defeat.

Sun Tzu provides further guidance on assessing the enemy's intentions based on their position and actions on different types of ground:

• When the army is encamped on hollow ground, hasten to occupy commanding elevations, and do not encamp in low-lying spots. When an army is advancing over difficult country, the units should be in close order, and the men should keep up a constant communication, the close formation being essential. When you find the army encamped in any spot, do not rush rashly to attack. First ascertain the condition of the neighboring ground, and only engage when you have a tactical advantage.

He concludes the chapter by emphasizing the importance of adaptability and understanding the psychological state of the troops when operating on various terrains:

• The following are the principles to be observed by an invading force: The further you penetrate into a hostile country, the greater will be the solidarity of your troops, and thus the more stubbornly will they fight. Make forays in fertile country in order to supply your army with food. Carefully study the well-being of your men, and do not overtax them. Concentrate your energy and hoard your strength. Keep your army continually on the move, and devise unfathomable plans. Throw your soldiers into positions whence there is no escape, and they will prefer death to flight. If they will face death, there is nothing they may not achieve. Officers and men alike, being thrown into a desperate position, will display their courage to the utmost. Thus we may know that those who are in desperate straits are capable of fighting; those who are not in desperate straits are not capable of fighting.   

In essence, Chapter 11 provides a nuanced understanding of how different battlefield environments dictate different strategic and tactical approaches. It highlights the need for the commander to be intimately familiar with these "nine varieties of ground" and to adapt their plans and the mindset of their troops accordingly to maximize their chances of success.

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Chapter 12: The Attack by Fire (火攻 - Huǒ Gōng).

In this chapter, Sun Tzu focuses specifically on the use of fire as a weapon, outlining the different ways it can be employed and the necessary precautions to take. He emphasizes that fire attack should be carefully planned and executed, considering the conditions and potential consequences.

Sun Tzu begins by stating the five ways to attack with fire:

1. Burning the enemy's camp.
2. Burning their stores of provisions.
3. Burning their baggage trains.
4. Burning their arsenals and magazines.
5. Dropping fire amongst the enemy in their midst.

He then elaborates on the conditions necessary for a successful fire attack:

• When you start a fire, be quiet. Await the proper time. If the enemy's camp is pitched in a dry spot, wait till the wind rises in order to launch your attack. If they have piled up faggots for fuel, these must be burned; although the enemy may be quiet, bide your time and do not stir, unless you see an advantage.

Sun Tzu stresses the importance of following up a fire attack with a decisive action:

• A fire develops its full force, be ready to follow it up with an attack. If there is no sign of the fire spreading, bide your time and do not attack.

He provides specific instructions for attacking with fire based on the wind direction:

• When you set fire to a camp to windward, do not attack from leeward. A sudden wind that springs up in the daytime lasts long, but a night breeze quickly dies down.

Sun Tzu warns against attacking with fire against the wind, as it can endanger your own forces.

He emphasizes the importance of preparation and not acting rashly:

• In all cases, you must be prepared to meet the five possible developments [the five ways of attacking with fire], and when circumstances are favorable, to follow up your attack with vigor.

Sun Tzu then discusses the rewards for success in a fire attack and the importance of not acting without cause:

• When fire breaks out inside to enemy's camp, respond at once with an attack from without. If there is an opportunity to use water-soldiers to deliver an assault, do not wait till the fire has burnt itself out.

He underscores the potentially devastating consequences of a failed fire attack:

• A force should be moved with deliberation, and only when there is a distinct advantage to be gained; if this is not the case, wait where you are.

Sun Tzu concludes the chapter by reiterating the seriousness of using fire as a weapon and the need for careful consideration:

• A fire starts in the enemy's own camp, be patient, and do not attack. Wait till the utmost confusion reigns, then deliver your assault. When you set fire to a position, do it down wind, not up wind. Attack should follow your fire. If done up wind, do not attack.

In essence, Chapter 12 provides a focused discussion on the strategic use of fire in warfare. It highlights the importance of timing, wind direction, and following up the attack decisively. Sun Tzu also cautions against the indiscriminate use of fire and emphasizes the need for careful planning and understanding of the potential risks and rewards.

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Chapter 13: The Use of Spies (用間 - Yòng Jiàn).

In this final chapter, Sun Tzu emphasizes the crucial role of intelligence gathering in warfare and details the different types of spies and how they should be utilized. He asserts that knowledge of the enemy's dispositions is essential for victory and cannot be obtained solely through observation or intuition.

Sun Tzu begins by stating that raising a host of a hundred thousand men and marching them great distances entails heavy loss on the people and a drain on the resources of the State. The daily expenditure will amount to a thousand ounces of silver. There will be commotion at home and abroad; men will drop down exhausted on the highways; as many as seven hundred thousand families will be impeded in their labor.   

He argues that economy and efficiency in warfare are paramount, and achieving victory without extensive campaigns relies heavily on knowing the enemy:   

• Hostile armies may face each other for years, striving for a victory which is decided in a single day. This being so, to remain in ignorance of the enemy's condition simply because one grudges the outlay of a hundred ounces of silver, is the height of inhumanity. One who acts thus is no leader of men; a blind man leading the blind.   

Sun Tzu then introduces five classes of spies to be employed:

1. Local spies (鄉間 - Xiāng Jiàn): Recruited from the enemy's locality. These spies provide information about the internal affairs, geography, and inhabitants of the enemy's territory.
2. Inward spies (內間 - Nèi Jiàn): Employed from among the enemy's officials. These are individuals within the enemy's government or military who are willing to betray their own side.
3. Converted spies (反間 - Fǎn Jiàn): Enemy spies who are captured and induced to work for you. Turning the enemy's own intelligence network against them.
4. Doomed spies (死間 - Sǐ Jiàn): Spies who are deliberately given false information and sent back to the enemy, knowing they will be captured and reveal the fabricated intelligence. Their sacrifice is intended to mislead the enemy.
5. Surviving spies (生間 - Shēng Jiàn): Spies who return to report on their missions. These are your regular intelligence gatherers who come back with firsthand information.

Sun Tzu stresses the importance of understanding and utilizing all five types of spies:

• When these five kinds of spy are all at work simultaneously, none can discover the secret system. This is called divine manipulation of the threads. It is the sovereign's most precious faculty.   

He emphasizes the necessity of treating spies well, especially converted spies, as they are a vital source of information:

• It is essential that you treat spies with the utmost liberality. Those who are not wise enough to know the use of spies are unworthy to lead armies. Those who are not circumspect in handling spies cannot turn their information to good account. If intriguing matters be divulged by a spy before the time is ripe, he must be put to death together with the man to whom the secret was told.

Sun Tzu reiterates that intelligence is the foundation of strategic planning:   

• It is only through the agency of local spies that the affairs of the enemy's country can be ascertained. It is only through the agency of inward spies that you can know the disposition of the enemy's officers. It is only through the agency of converted spies that you can make use of the enemy's spies. It is only through the agency of doomed spies that you can convey false intelligence to your enemy. It is only through the agency of surviving spies that you can bring back news from the enemy's camp.

He concludes the Art of War by underscoring the indispensable nature of spies and intelligence for achieving victory:

• In war, the first essential is to avoid battles if at all possible; but this will be impossible unless you are thoroughly acquainted with the enemy's dispositions. It is only by employing spies that it is possible to carry out this essential function. To know your enemy, you must make use of every possible means of information, and this information can only be obtained through the employment of spies. Do not be sparing of money; a small outlay will save you great expense. It is the information brought by spies that enables us to conquer without fighting, to take cities without laying siege, and to overthrow an enemy's kingdom without lengthy operations in the field. Their knowledge of the enemy enables us to move like the wind, to be as silent as the forest, to strike like fire, and to be as immovable as the mountains.

In essence, Chapter 13 serves as a powerful conclusion to the Art of War, emphasizing that intelligence gathering through the effective use of spies is not a mere auxiliary function but a fundamental pillar of successful warfare. Knowing the enemy is presented as the key to minimizing losses, achieving swift victories, and ultimately securing the safety and prosperity of the state.

And with that, we have completed our journey through all thirteen chapters of Sun Tzu's Art of War.