Marco Polo - the Silk Road & the Mongol Emperor Kublai Khan

 

Who was Marco Polo?

Marco Polo was a Venetian merchant, explorer, and writer, born in 1254 in the Republic of Venice (modern-day Italy). His family belonged to a wealthy merchant class, which played a key role in shaping his future. His father, Niccolò Polo, and his uncle, Maffeo Polo, were already seasoned traders with experience in Asia, particularly with the Mongol Empire.

Marco’s mother likely died when he was young, and he was raised mostly by extended family while his father and uncle were abroad on trading missions. He grew up learning the ins and outs of commerce—currencies, goods, and languages—which set the foundation for his eventual journey.

His story truly begins when, at around 17 years old, Marco joined his father and uncle on their second journey to Asia in 1271, which would take them along the famed Silk Road and eventually lead to the court of Kublai Khan, the Mongol emperor of China.

The Journey to the East (1271–1275)

In 1271, Marco Polo set out from Venice with his father Niccolò and uncle Maffeo. Their goal? To return to the Mongol Empire and fulfill Kublai Khan’s request for educated men and sacred oil from Jerusalem—requests the elder Polos had promised to deliver after their first visit.

Route and Challenges

The trio traveled overland via the Silk Road, the massive trade network linking Europe to Asia. Their journey took them through:

• The Levant (modern-day Middle East): They stopped in Acre and Jerusalem, securing some of the holy oil the Khan had requested.

• Persia (Iran): Crossed the rugged terrain and deserts of Persia, where political instability and banditry made travel dangerous.

• The Pamir Mountains: One of the harshest parts of the trip, with freezing temperatures, high altitude, and treacherous paths.

• The Taklamakan Desert: Known as one of the deadliest deserts in the world—legend says many caravans vanished in its dunes.

Despite the dangers, the Polos’ status as emissaries of the Pope and their ties to the Mongols helped them travel relatively safely. They often joined large caravans for protection and likely stayed at caravanserais (roadside inns) that dotted the route.

Arrival in China

After roughly 3.5 years of travel, they finally arrived at Shangdu (Xanadu), Kublai Khan’s summer capital. Marco was about 21 years old.

This epic journey east was more than just a trek—it was a cultural immersion. Along the way, Marco absorbed languages, customs, and sights that would later form the backbone of Il Milione, the book that would make him famous.

Marco Polo’s Early Experiences in Mongol China (circa 1275–1277)

When Marco Polo arrived in the Mongol Empire, he stepped into a world unlike anything he had ever known—a vast, diverse, and highly organized realm ruled by Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan. The Mongol Empire at that time was the largest contiguous empire in history, stretching from Eastern Europe to the Pacific.

Impression on Kublai Khan

Marco was quickly introduced to the court at Shangdu (Xanadu). Though still young, his intelligence, curiosity, and eloquence reportedly made a strong impression on Kublai Khan. He spoke several languages and had absorbed various customs during his travels, which made him stand out from other Western visitors.

Learning the Mongol Way

Before he entered into official service, Marco spent time adapting to life in the empire:

• Language and Protocol: He learned Mongolian, Chinese dialects, and Persian—crucial for navigating the complex multicultural empire.

• Observing the Bureaucracy: The Mongol administration was highly structured. Marco studied how taxation, communication (via the Yam courier system), and provincial governance worked.

• Religious and Cultural Tolerance: He marveled at the empire’s religious tolerance. Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, and Daoism all coexisted, each with representation at court.

• The Cities: He traveled to cities like Khanbaliq (modern-day Beijing) and others that revealed the Mongols’ advanced infrastructure—paved roads, bridges, post stations, and sophisticated trade networks.

Integration into Mongol Society

Marco adopted Mongol dress and customs, which further earned him the Khan’s trust. The Polos weren’t merely tourists—they were slowly being woven into the fabric of this complex empire.

These early experiences prepared Marco for what was coming next: a position in the service of Kublai Khan himself.

Marco Polo’s Observations of Chinese Society

1. Urban Life and Infrastructure

Marco was stunned by the scale and sophistication of Chinese cities, especially Khanbaliq (modern-day Beijing):

• He described wide streets, organized markets, canals, and drainage systems.

• The cities were clean, with well-maintained public spaces and impressive stone and brick buildings.

• He marveled at how markets were organized by trade—fishmongers in one section, silk dealers in another, spice merchants elsewhere.

He also noted the presence of night patrols and even a kind of postal police—a level of civic order that far surpassed most European cities at the time.

2. Economy and Trade

China’s economy amazed Marco:

• Paper money was in use, issued by the state and backed by gold and silver reserves—completely foreign to European systems that relied on coinage.

• Trade and taxes were highly organized. Goods from all over Asia flowed into Chinese markets: spices, pearls, silk, and more.

• He was impressed by the use of granaries to stabilize food prices and prevent famine.

3. Agriculture and Innovation

Marco admired Chinese agriculture, particularly their advanced irrigation systems, rice cultivation, and crop rotation. He also observed the use of coal, which was virtually unknown in Europe:

"They have a kind of black stone... which burns like logs and is so efficient that one load can last a household for a whole day."

4. Culture and Religion

He observed a high degree of religious tolerance and diversity:

• Buddhism, Daoism, Islam, and Nestorian Christianity were all practiced.

• Temples and religious festivals were common, and there was imperial support for scholarship and spiritual life.

He also commented on Confucian-style civil service exams and how knowledge and education were valued more than birthright.

5. Justice and Governance

Marco described a legal system with:

• Codified laws

• Provincial governors who answered to the Khan

• Investigators who checked up on corruption and abuse

This administrative complexity was unfamiliar in feudal Europe, where power was more fragmented and personal.

Marco Polo in Service to Kublai Khan (c. 1277–1292)

After earning the trust of Kublai Khan, Marco Polo was appointed as a court official and envoy. This was an extraordinary position for a foreigner, especially a young European. It speaks volumes about both Marco’s abilities and the Khan’s openness to talent, regardless of origin.

Role and Duties

Marco was essentially a roving ambassador and administrator. His duties included:

• Diplomatic missions to distant provinces and foreign vassals.

• Governance roles—he claims to have served as a tax inspector and even a governor of Yangzhou (though some scholars debate this).

• Reporting back on regional conditions—he observed the wealth, customs, and loyalty of various parts of the empire.

He traveled extensively through China, Southeast Asia, and possibly even India, all under orders from the Khan.

Why Was He Trusted?

• He was multilingual and cross-culturally fluent.

• He was seen as neutral—unconnected to internal Mongol politics.

• He had already proved his loyalty and had his father and uncle beside him as added credibility.

Notable Travels During Service

Marco claims to have visited:

• Yunnan and Tibet—remote and mountainous regions.

• Hangzhou, which he called “the finest and most splendid city in the world.”

• Possibly Burma, Vietnam, and the coast of India, though modern historians debate how far he actually traveled.

Wherever he went, he documented what he saw: massive rivers with bustling trade, palatial cities, strange customs, exotic animals (like rhinoceroses, which he may have mistaken for unicorns), and technologies that blew his European mind.

The Grand Court of Kublai Khan

Marco also spent considerable time at court, describing its grandeur in detail:

• Thousands of retainers, guards, ministers, and entertainers.

• Elaborate rituals and feasts.

• The use of golden tablets of authority (paiza), giving imperial agents safe passage and power.

• Massive hunting expeditions with trained falcons and leopards.

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Marco served the Khan for approximately 17 years, building a deep knowledge of the empire. But by the late 1280s, the Polos began to yearn for home.

A few possibilities to consider:

• Cultural Norms or Intentional Omission: Given that the book was dictated to a romance writer (Rustichello da Pisa) while Marco was in prison, it was likely shaped more to entertain a European audience with tales of exotic lands than to serve as a personal diary. Romance or affairs may have been seen as inappropriate to include or irrelevant to his narrative of exploration and service.

• Realistic Possibility: Given that Marco spent over 15 years in China and held high-status roles, it’s very plausible that he formed relationships—maybe even married or took a consort in the Mongol or Chinese tradition. Foreign officials often integrated into local culture, including marriage.

• Court Life: He does describe the imperial harem and the beauty of Chinese and Mongol women (often in idealized, sometimes over-the-top ways), which suggests at least a curiosity or admiration, but never places himself personally in those stories.

So, did he have any personal relationships?

Probably—it’s hard to believe a young, high-ranking foreigner wouldn’t form close ties or relationships over nearly two decades. But historically, there’s no direct record of a wife, children, or lovers in the East.

The short answer is: Marco Polo himself doesn't mention any romantic or personal relationships with women during his time in the Mongol Empire in Il Milione, the book that records his travels. It’s silent on that front, which has led to plenty of speculation.

Leaving the Court of Kublai Khan (circa 1292)

After nearly 17 years of service, Marco Polo and his family wanted to return to Venice. But there was a problem:

Kublai Khan didn’t want to let them go.

He had grown fond of the Polo family, especially Marco, and valued their service. The empire was also becoming more unstable, with Kublai aging and succession tensions looming. Letting trusted foreigners go was risky.

The Perfect Excuse: A Royal Escort Mission

Their opportunity came in 1292. A Mongol princess, Kököchin, needed to be escorted by sea from China to Persia to marry a Mongol prince from the Ilkhanate (another branch of the Mongol Empire). The Polos volunteered to accompany her.

Kublai agreed—but only reluctantly—and gave them official passports, supplies, and gifts. This mission became their ticket out.

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The Voyage Home

The journey back was as dramatic as the trek to China:

• They set sail from Quanzhou, a major port in southern China.

• Traveled through Southeast Asia, likely passing by Sumatra, Sri Lanka, and India.

• Faced storms, disease, and hostile waters. Out of the several hundred who began the journey, only a few dozen survived—including the Polos and the princess.

After reaching Persia, they continued overland through Anatolia and the Middle East, eventually arriving in Venice around 1295—24 years after they had first left.

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The Return to Venice

When they arrived, Venice was at war with Genoa. The Polos were unrecognizable—weathered, dressed in foreign robes, and reportedly speaking multiple languages with Eastern mannerisms. Legend says they were only believed when they cracked open seams in their clothes and revealed jewels sewn into the linings.

Their stories were so incredible that many dismissed them as fantasy—until Marco was captured in a naval skirmish with Genoa and began telling his story to a cellmate.

That’s where the book begins.

Marco Polo’s Capture and the Writing of Il Milione (The Travels of Marco Polo)

Captured in Battle (1298)

A few years after returning to Venice, Marco joined the naval conflict against rival city-state Genoa. During the Battle of Curzola in 1298, he was captured and imprisoned by the Genoese. But fate had one more twist for him—his cellmate was Rustichello da Pisa, a romance writer and novelist.

Dictating the Travels

While in prison, Marco dictated his incredible journey to Rustichello, who wrote it in Old French or Franco-Italian, adding literary flair and drama. This became the book we know as:

• Il Milione (The Million) – in Venice, it was sometimes mockingly called “The Book of a Million Lies” due to its outlandish stories.

• Also known as The Travels of Marco Polo.

It was one of the first detailed European accounts of Asia and included descriptions of:

• Chinese cities, infrastructure, and the imperial court

• Exotic animals (like elephants and crocodiles)

• Paper money, coal, gunpowder, and postal systems

• Customs, religions, and trade across Central Asia

Despite skepticism, it spread quickly, translated into Latin, various European languages, and became a sensation.

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Impact and Legacy

• The Travels became a key source of knowledge for centuries.

• It inspired explorers, most famously Christopher Columbus, who carried a copy on his own voyage and wrote notes in the margins.

• Even though some stories were exaggerated or misunderstood, much of Marco’s information aligns with later Chinese and Persian sources.

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Marco Polo was eventually released from prison and returned to Venice, where he lived as a wealthy merchant until his death in 1324.

The Legacy of Marco Polo

1. Historical Impact

Marco Polo's Travels became one of the most influential travelogues in history. For many Europeans, it was their first glimpse into the vast, advanced civilizations of Asia. While much of Europe was still feudal and fragmented, Marco described cities, infrastructure, and cultural sophistication that stunned readers.

He expanded the European imagination, opening minds to the possibility of a world far beyond their borders—rich with trade, strange customs, powerful rulers, and unfamiliar technologies.

2. Influence on Exploration

One of the most profound impacts was on later explorers:

• Christopher Columbus cited Marco Polo as an inspiration. He even believed he could reach the riches of Asia using Polo’s descriptions as a guide.

• The Travels helped shape the European Age of Discovery by feeding a hunger for exploration and trade with the East.

3. Doubts and Skepticism

Even during his life, some thought Marco’s stories were too fantastic:

• He didn’t mention the Great Wall (likely because it was in ruins or not significant during his time).

• He exaggerated certain things (like the size of armies or cities).

• Some believe he may have heard stories secondhand and presented them as personal experiences.

But over time, many of his accounts were verified by later explorers, Chinese records, and archaeological findings.

4. Rediscovery in Modern History

• Scholars now view Il Milione as a blend of truth, observation, exaggeration, and myth.

• Chinese records confirm foreign visitors at Kublai Khan’s court, and several details about cities, economy, and court customs match Yuan Dynasty records.

• Marco's name lives on in popular culture, literature, and even space—there’s a crater on the Moon named after him.

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Final Word Marco Polo was not the first European to reach China, but he was the first to tell the story in a way that changed the world. Whether he was a meticulous observer or a gifted storyteller—or both—his journey helped bridge East and West in ways no one had before.